Brain Mechanisms Controlling Drug Addiction Reinforcement

Brain Mechanisms Controlling Drug Addiction Reinforcement Discuss how theories relate drug addiction to endogenous brain mechanisms controlling reinforcement, and look at how these theories may be used to improve the effectiveness of treatment of addiction In psycho-biological terms addiction is regarded as the perceived need for a drug or substance and the potential for the subsequent re-use of that substance often manifesting itself in a pattern of drug induced behaviour. This has indicated a connection between the behavioural pattern of a user and the biological cravings that are associated with this pattern of behaviour. Due to this relationship between dependent and abusive behaviour patterns and the biological and psychological cravings for the wanted substances, research has gone into establishing the effects of drug addiction and their basis in psychology resulting in many neurobiological models. In terms of patterns of behaviour, operant conditioning provides a convenient, easy and reliable way of adjusting any subject’s pa ttern of behaviour under the conditioning of a controlled and changeable environmental. This has been conducted in research in an easily observable manner that was then able to account for factors pertaining to addiction and the potential for abuse through accordance to a pre-devised model. Through the notions of positive regard, response and reward and through shaping behaviours this could then be adjusted to test any independent variable. This acts as a convenient methodology for observing the effects of drugs and was devised by early Psychopharmacological researchers in a bid to examine the relationship between drug use and behaviour patterns. One such piece of seminal research that incorporated this relationship was conducted by Dews (1953). In his founding study, Dew began a program of operant studies in an attempt to observe the behavioural effects of drugs to see how it could act as a precursor for addiction. His initial experiments on the behavioural patterns observed in ani mals led to the establishment that a schedule of reinforcement maintaining a pattern of behaviour could play a critical role in determining the effects of a drug (Dews, 1955). Through operant conditioning and behavioural observation he was able to discern that the dose-effects of the drugs used in his experiment varied in terms of performances that were maintained under two different schedules of reinforcement. However, he was also able to observe that there was a dose range in which the rate of behaviour would increase in one schedule condition, whilst it decreased in the other condition. This was an early indication that drug addiction depended upon the schedule as much as it did the dosage. Essentially, addiction was determined by patterns of behaviour as much as patterns of behaviour were determined by drug usage. In these early experiments, Dews was able to ascertain that stimulants would increase the probability of a pattern of behaviour as it pertained to the relevant classif ication of a drug. However, he was also able to note that the drug could decrease the probability of any given pattern of behaviour itself. This research indicated that there was a variety of concepts at play within the role of addiction, such as tolerance, abuse, dependency and reward. In contemporary research, we can see that these factors have been incorporated in an attempt to identify the mechanisms in the brain that lead to dependency, abuse and addiction through the parsing of reward. This was devised by Berridge et al (2003) as the investigation to find the neuro-pharmacological basis for three main psychological components essential to the parsing of reward and onset of addiction. These were the concepts of learning that included the explicit and implicit knowledge produced by associative conditioning and cognitive processes, an affect or emotion such as implicit ‘liking’ and conscious pleasure associated with the experience of the drug, and motivation; suggest ed as the implicit incentive salient ‘wanting’ and the accompanying cognitive incentive goals. Essentially, this three way split revealed that learning (Dews schedules of reinforcement), craving (the perceived effect of the drug) and habit (Dews patterns of behaviour) were the major contributing and operating factors in the role of addiction.

Mechanisms That Would Bring About Macroeconomic Equilibrium Essay

Mechanisms That Would Bring About Macroeconomic Equilibrium - Essay Example How our currency fares in comparison and competition with those of other countries and its fluctuations and ups and downs are included in this category. However, in the floating exchange rate system the currency rate is determined by the forces of demand and supply and thus, central banks cannot help there. However, Government intervention could help bring macro-economic equilibrium in this case. Through the use of laws and regulations, it could prove to be a worthy and useful mechanism in this regard. Taxes and subsidies imposed by Government on producers of different commodities are one of them. Secondly, tariffs are another factor in this regard. They might take the form of quotas, embargos and other forms of tariff regimes. The state of economy also matters. Whether the economy is in a state of a boom [good economic period with high GDP] or in a state of slump [bad economic period with low levels of GDP] also affects the exchange rates.

Hypothetical Family Health Promotion Assessment Essay

Hypothetical Family Health Promotion Assessment - Essay Example While some families may consist of the standard two-parent home, there are a numerous amount of ways in which families are organized and in which social groups they exist. The modern nurse must be sensitive to these unusual circumstances and adjust one’s attitude accordingly, being careful not to place judgment upon clients who need nursing services. According to Bomar (2004), â€Å"During the past two decades, the evolution of family nursing assessment in nursing theory, practice, education, and research has been observed and documented in the nursing literature† (pp. 275). Nurses must be sensitive also to the fact that various ages, races, ethnicities, and other demographics of people may not fit perceived stereotypes, or that their lives’ paths vary significantly from what is considered socially appropriate or aesthetically pleasant. Some people live in abject poverty while other patients may be quite rich—and it is important for the nurse to understand that she must treat all of her patients with the same amount of dignity and care as she would anyone else. This is especially true of the Morrison family as evidenced in Mary Lawson’s book Crow Lake. Katie is definitely not the typical caregiver, as she is an young adult herself and learning how to take care of a young sister who is less than five years old. Katie is one of the focal points of the book, a scientist who struggles with the issues that surround being impoverished, but, at the same time juggling responsibilities while aspiring to a better life. The FFAM is, according to Stanhope and Lancaster (2006), â€Å"[o]ne family assessment model and approach developed by a nurse†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (pp. 335). The FFAM is able to assess various family issues that are of concern to the nurse in his or her chosen profession. Obviously, in any family there are immediate telltale signs of problems. The most obvious sign of some problem is physical abuse, although, the problems to b e discussed here are more internal, invisible, intangible problems which can have effects on patients. Although one can’t see a bruise, indeed, the individual is injured, albeit in his or her psyche. It is the emotional pain that can also scar a patient irrevocably for life, and this is what the nurse seeks to diagnose in order so that he or she can assuage the patient’s fears and continue to pursue a plan that will plot a course of treatment appropriate for the patient. Affective Involvement is the first aspect that I would think would be very key in assessing the Morrison family’s situation. The family’s young ones are taught not to express themselves overtly in a strong manner. Says Lawson (2003), â€Å"Understatement was the rule in our house. Emotions, even positive ones, were kept firmly under control† (pp. 9). Most relevant for promoting the Morrison family’s health in this category comes under the concern of the young people basicall y not being cared for in the ways they need to develop. For example, one very important concern is Katie’s younger sister Bo, who is a toddler. Toddlers need lots of love and affection from parents in order to develop properly, and without that kind of support, Bo will rely almost entirely upon her older sister as a mother figure, and upon her brothers Matt and Luke as father figures. However, since Luke at one point might go away to college, and Matt establishes his own family—only Luke remains once he decides that he is going to get a job to support the family instead, even though he

Jerry Sandusky: Child Molester or Not? Essays -- Child Molestation

To most children, everything in the world is good, righteous, and completely innocent. Getting their apple juice stolen by his or her brother is the worst thing that could possibly ever happen to them. Being safe, secure, and worry free is the reality for most children, as it should be. For 10 individuals that have made their childhood incidents open to the public, a very evil and twisted man stole the innocence that they once knew. This man is Jerry Sandusky. Sandusky was known to most as a normal man who coached football at Pennsylvania State University, also known as â€Å"Penn State† (Bronstein). In the 23 years that Sandusky coached, he primarily served as defensive coordinator (Scott). In 1999, after his 23rd season, head coach Joe Paterno informed Sandusky that he would not become the next head coach of the Penn State football team (Scott). That single conversation led Sandusky to his retirement that same year (Grand Jury Report 16). Victim 4 later testified that this s ituation upset Sandusky greatly (Grand Jury Report 16). Jerry Sandusky first met his victims through The Second Mile, a charity for at-risk children (Johnson). This charity was started as a group home in 1977 by Sandusky himself, but turned into an organization that stretched across all of central Pennsylvania (Grand Jury Report 1). While the Second Mile program served over 100,000 children, it’s net worth exploded to over $9 million (Roebuck). This program gave Sandusky easy access to small boys and plenty of them through summer camps, picnics, and chances for the boys to attend football games with him (Johnson). Sandusky would first start casual conversation with the boys before inviting them to Penn State football games or other miscellaneous outings (Johnson... ... Transcript. Leshan, Bruce. "Sandusky "Victim #1" Ready To Testify | Wusa9.com." Wusa9.com. 12 Dec. 2011. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. Monk, John. "In Sandusky Case, Columbia Lawyer Stands with Victim No. 6 - Local / Metro - TheState.com." TheState.com. 13 Dec. 2011. Web. 15 Dec. 2011. Roebuck, Jeremy. "Penn State Scandal Directs New Scrutiny to University's Relationship with Second Mile Charity." Philadelphia Inquirer 26 Nov. 2011. Print. Roebuck, Jeremy. "Sandusky Lawyer Decries Media's Chilling Effect on His Witnesses." Philadelphia Inquirer 27 Nov. 2011. EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. Web. 30 Nov. 2011. "Sandusky Case Now Heads to Trial." EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. USA Today, 14 Dec. 2011. Web. 15 Dec. 2011. Scott, David C. "Jerry Sandusky: What Did Penn State's Joe Paterno Know about Him?" Christian Science Monitor. Web. 30 Nov. 2011.

The Barraging Dos Information System

Its concern is to store, retrieve, organize, and update the residents' record. It will lessen the papers they handle and they can process the requirements needed by the residents of their Barraging in the shortest time. It was also developed to reduce the hard and long-time procedure of accessing files and records they keep. This will also avoid duplication of data. All information about the Barraging residents will be recorded in the database to lessen the paper works and to reduce the work of the employees.The system will be effective in maintaining, searching ND storing records of all residents In the barraging. Implementing the Barraging Information System in their Barraging will eliminate the manual process Of transactions they usually do. TO use the System, the user should have knowledge in using the computer which is very important. The study focused on how to compile all the information using this system which will clearly update and edit the information without any further m istake.Project Schedule It Describes a listing of a project's milestones, activities, and deliverables, usually with intended start and finish dates. Those items are often estimated in terms of resource allocation, budget and duration, linked by dependencies and scheduled events. Define project specification a. Find and identify Barraging b. Preliminary Barraging interview c. Data gathering and feasibility study d. Identifying requirements e. Final Barraging interview f.Generate project Proposal 190 II. System analysis and design a. Determining Feasibility b. Review of Existing System c. Data flow diagram Development d. Entity relationship diagram development e. Table relationship diagram development f. User interface development Figure 3 Task, Duration, and Dependency Table The table above shows the task and its duration and the dependencies of each that must flow in order. The group started the project on July 201 3 and he estimated date that the project will end is February 2014. Legend: A-Ezra Model B – Reined Molecular Nolan Decent C D – Marital Kananga PERSON RESPONSIBLE IV. Define project specification V. System analysis and design d. Entity relationship diagram development f. User interface development Table 4 Task, Duration, and Person Responsible The table above shows the task and its duration and the responsible for each developer during the project development for proposed Business Permits, Licensing and Treasury System for the Municipality of Stop. Tomato's Business Permits, Licensing and Treasury offices.

Ethical Health Care Issues - 1023 Words

Dementia and Ethical Issues HCS-545 April 09, 2012 Cheryl Bly Dementia Ethical Issues Growing old and losing the ability to function independently is inevitable. Aging is a part of life. As adults grow old, they need increased assistance with daily living skills. The elderly may need assistance with finances, cooking, washing clothes, and cleaning. However, many Americans are not only aging but also acquiring dementia. In a recent study from the funded by the National Institute of Health (NIH), revealed that approximately 3.8 million people in the United States have some type of dementia National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (2001). Dementia affects the ability to cognitively function†¦show more content†¦This principle is based on idea of the idea of goodness as a benefit. The third principle is to cause no harm and the fourth principle justice. Justice is based on the idea to act fairly (Morrison, 2011). Analyze In this case, we will analyze the important questions of intubation of patients with dementia by applying the four ethical principles. The first principle is autonomy which is the right to chose and made decisions (Morrison, 2011). Patients with dementia are non-autonomy have lost their ability to made decisions for themselves during the last stages of the lives. It is important to make decisions following the patient’s wishes. The patients may have stated how he would have liked to live under these circumstances or should be made by a person that he would want. That leads to the next two principles benefiance and non-malefiance. Both of these protect the patients by assuring that the patient is not harmed and only good is produced by the outcome (Morrison, 2011). Benefiance involves the benefit of a treatment. Non-maleficence involves avoiding harm. The benefit of the treatment should outshine the harm that may be caused. We will have to analyze of the placeme nt of the feeding tube will harm the patients or cause pain. The last principle is justice. Justice is a very important principle because it justifies the actions and helps with the decision making process by assuring acts of fairness.Show MoreRelatedEthical Issues Of Health Care954 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction: It is quiet common in health care profession that there is always clash between a patient’s family and health care personnel. It has been observed that few patients inevitably suffer from the consequences, that they made during the course of their care or when they are hospitalized. Many people, who need surgical procedure or diagnostic tests, are compelled to wait months, or in worst cases for few years. 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Extending Lives--But at What Cost - 877 Words

Even though the prospect of extending life indefinitely via the philosopher’s stone has been around since the ancient Greeks and has also been mentioned in the Bible, modern-day biochemists and biomedical engineers are much closer to achieving the ideal of immortality. Life extension has also had its role in popular culture in movies such as Logan’s Run. The movie depicts American society in 2274 when a totalitarian government is in power. Due to the limited resources, the dystopian government dictates that all citizens must die when they reach age thirty, and all the citizens of this government live with a watch that ticks down the time they have left to live (talk about a literal biological clock). This is a darkly humored film that can be viewed as an interpretation of Malthusian theory (described in 1798), which states that while resources like arable land, food, and natural oils grow linearly, the human population grows exponentially. Although life extension is an intriguing idea for some people, the potential problems it would likely cause, in addition to the existing problems that it would exacerbate, would greatly outweigh the benefits. Specifically, there are drawbacks behind extending the average human’s lifespan by a considerable amount, like extending the individual’s life past his or her health span and functionality. People could be sustained through biotechnology past their prime just to live in pain due to the tissues not integrating themselves correctly intoShow MoreRelatedNew Jersey Proposed Pilot Program to Extending School Days and Hours: A Progressive Idea or Exhausting 1248 Words   |  5 Pagesand chatter on whether NJ students will benefit from longer days, or if it is just a political maneuver and waste of money we do not have. However much the cost, extending the the length of time spent is school, is a sold foundation for creating more competitive and college ready students. 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The problem is battery range and power. With today’s technology, a small, low cost mass produced eCar would have a range of about 80 miles on a charge and a top speed of 60 miles an hour. This is considered not good enough for the market that is used to gasoline cars with top speeds of 100+ and with a range of 300+ miles. The eCar